1 And the LORD spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying unto them,
2 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the beasts which ye shall eat among all the beasts that are on the earth.
3 Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is cloven-footed, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that shall ye eat.
4 Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the hoof: as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.
5 And the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.
6 And the hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you.
7 And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean to you.
8 Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcass shall ye not touch; they are unclean to you.
9 These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye eat.
10 And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you:
11 They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but ye shall have their carcasses in abomination.
12 Whatsoever hath no fins nor scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination unto you.
13 And these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray,
14 And the vulture, and the kite after his kind;
15 Every raven after his kind;
16 And the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after his kind,
17 And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl,
18 And the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle,
19 And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat.
20 All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you.
21 Yet these may ye eat of every flying creeping thing that goeth upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal upon the earth;
22 Even these of them ye may eat; the locust after his kind, and the bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the grasshopper after his kind.
23 But all other flying creeping things, which have four feet, shall be an abomination unto you.
24 And for these ye shall be unclean: whosoever toucheth the carcass of them shall be unclean until the even.
25 And whosoever beareth ought of the carcass of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even.
26 The carcasses of every beast which divideth the hoof, and is not cloven-footed, nor cheweth the cud, are unclean unto you: every one that toucheth them shall be unclean.
27 And whatsoever goeth upon his paws, among all manner of beasts that go on all four, those are unclean unto you: whoso toucheth their carcass shall be unclean until the even.
28 And he that beareth the carcass of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: they are unclean unto you.
29 These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind,
30 And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole.
31 These are unclean to you among all that creep: whosoever doth touch them, when they be dead, shall be unclean until the even.
32 And upon whatsoever any of them, when they are dead, doth fall, it shall be unclean; whether it be any vessel of wood, or raiment, or skin, or sack, whatsoever vessel it be, wherein any work is done, it must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the even; so it shall be cleansed.
33 And every earthen vessel, whereinto any of them falleth, whatsoever is in it shall be unclean; and ye shall break it.
34 Of all meat which may be eaten, that on which such water cometh shall be unclean: and all drink that may be drunk in every such vessel shall be unclean.
35 And every thing whereupon any part of their carcass falleth shall be unclean; whether it be oven, or ranges for pots, they shall be broken down: for they are unclean and shall be unclean unto you.
36 Nevertheless a fountain or pit, wherein there is plenty of water, shall be clean: but that which toucheth their carcass shall be unclean.
37 And if any part of their carcass fall upon any sowing seed which is to be sown, it shall be clean.
38 But if any water be put upon the seed, and any part of their carcass fall thereon, it shall be unclean unto you.
39 And if any beast, of which ye may eat, die; he that toucheth the carcass thereof shall be unclean until the even.
40 And he that eateth of the carcass of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: he also that beareth the carcass of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even.
41 And every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth shall be an abomination; it shall not be eaten.
42 Whatsoever goeth upon the belly, and whatsoever goeth upon all four, or whatsoever hath more feet among all creeping things that creep upon the earth, them ye shall not eat; for they are an abomination.
43 Ye shall not make yourselves abominable with any creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean with them, that ye should be defiled thereby.
44 For I am the LORD your God: ye shall therefore sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy; for I am holy: neither shall ye defile yourselves with any manner of creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
45 For I am the LORD that bringeth you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: ye shall therefore be holy, for I am holy.
46 This is the law of the beasts, and of the fowl, and of every living creature that moveth in the waters, and of every creature that creepeth upon the earth:
47 To make a difference between the unclean and the clean, and between the beast that may be eaten and the beast that may not be eaten.
1 And the LORD H3068 spake H1696 unto Moses H4872 and to Aaron, H175 saying H559 unto them,
2 Speak H1696 unto the children H1121 of Israel, H3478 saying, H559 These H2063 are the beasts H2416 which ye shall eat H398 among all the beasts H929 that are on the earth. H776
3 Whatsoever parteth H6536 the hoof, H6541 and is clovenfooted, H8156 H8157 and cheweth H5927 the cud, H1625 among the beasts, H929 that shall ye eat. H398
4 Nevertheless H389 these shall ye not eat H398 of them that chew H5927 the cud, H1625 or of them that divide H6536 the hoof: H6541 as the camel, H1581 because he cheweth H5927 the cud, H1625 but divideth H6536 not the hoof; H6541 he is unclean H2931 unto you.
5 And the coney, H8227 because he cheweth H5927 the cud, H1625 but divideth H6536 not the hoof; H6541 he is unclean H2931 unto you.
6 And the hare, H768 because he cheweth H5927 the cud, H1625 but divideth H6536 not the hoof; H6541 he is unclean H2931 unto you.
7 And the swine, H2386 though he divide H6536 the hoof, H6541 and be clovenfooted, H8156 H8157 yet he cheweth H1641 not the cud; H1625 he is unclean H2931 to you.
8 Of their flesh H1320 shall ye not eat, H398 and their carcase H5038 shall ye not touch; H5060 they are unclean H2931 to you.
9 These shall ye eat H398 of all that are in the waters: H4325 whatsoever hath fins H5579 and scales H7193 in the waters, H4325 in the seas, H3220 and in the rivers, H5158 them shall ye eat. H398
10 And all that have not fins H5579 and scales H7193 in the seas, H3220 and in the rivers, H5158 of all that move H8318 in the waters, H4325 and of any living H2416 thing H5315 which is in the waters, H4325 they shall be an abomination H8263 unto you:
11 They shall be even an abomination H8263 unto you; ye shall not eat H398 of their flesh, H1320 but ye shall have their carcases H5038 in abomination. H8262
12 Whatsoever hath no fins H5579 nor scales H7193 in the waters, H4325 that shall be an abomination H8263 unto you.
13 And these are they which ye shall have in abomination H8262 among H4480 the fowls; H5775 they shall not be eaten, H398 they are an abomination: H8263 the eagle, H5404 and the ossifrage, H6538 and the ospray, H5822
14 And the vulture, H1676 and the kite H344 after his kind; H4327
15 Every raven H6158 after his kind; H4327
16 And the owl, H1323 H3284 and the night hawk, H8464 and the cuckow, H7828 and the hawk H5322 after his kind, H4327
17 And the little owl, H3563 and the cormorant, H7994 and the great owl, H3244
18 And the swan, H8580 and the pelican, H6893 and the gier eagle, H7360
19 And the stork, H2624 the heron H601 after her kind, H4327 and the lapwing, H1744 and the bat. H5847
20 All fowls H5775 that creep, H8318 going H1980 upon all four, H702 shall be an abomination H8263 unto you.
21 Yet these may ye eat H398 of every flying H5775 creeping H8318 thing that goeth H1980 upon all four, H702 which have legs H3767 above H4605 their feet, H7272 to leap H5425 withal H2004 upon the earth; H776
22 Even these of them ye may eat; H398 the locust H697 after his kind, H4327 and the bald locust H5556 after his kind, H4327 and the beetle H2728 after his kind, H4327 and the grasshopper H2284 after his kind. H4327
23 But all other flying H5775 creeping things, H8318 which have four H702 feet, H7272 shall be an abomination H8263 unto you.
24 And for these ye shall be unclean: H2930 whosoever toucheth H5060 the carcase H5038 of them shall be unclean H2930 until the even. H6153
25 And whosoever beareth H5375 ought of the carcase H5038 of them shall wash H3526 his clothes, H899 and be unclean H2930 until the even. H6153
26 The carcases of every beast H929 which divideth H6536 the hoof, H6541 and is not clovenfooted, H8157 H8156 nor cheweth H5927 the cud, H1625 are unclean H2931 unto you: every one that toucheth H5060 them shall be unclean. H2930
27 And whatsoever H3605 H1992 goeth H1980 upon his paws, H3709 among all manner of beasts H2416 that go H1980 on all four, H702 those are unclean H2931 unto you: whoso toucheth H5060 their carcase H5038 shall be unclean H2930 until the even. H6153
28 And he that beareth H5375 the carcase H5038 of them shall wash H3526 his clothes, H899 and be unclean H2930 until the even: H6153 they are unclean H2931 unto you.
29 These also shall be unclean H2931 unto you among the creeping things H8318 that creep H8317 upon the earth; H776 the weasel, H2467 and the mouse, H5909 and the tortoise H6632 after his kind, H4327
30 And the ferret, H604 and the chameleon, H3581 and the lizard, H3911 and the snail, H2546 and the mole. H8580
31 These are unclean H2931 to you among all that creep: H8318 whosoever doth touch H5060 them, when they be dead, H4194 shall be unclean H2930 until the even. H6153
32 And upon whatsoever any of them, when they are dead, H4194 doth fall, H5307 it shall be unclean; H2930 whether it be any vessel H3627 of wood, H6086 or raiment, H899 or skin, H5785 or sack, H8242 whatsoever vessel H3627 it be, wherein any work H4399 is done, H6213 it must be put H935 into water, H4325 and it shall be unclean H2930 until the even; H6153 so it shall be cleansed. H2891
33 And every earthen H2789 vessel, H3627 whereinto any of them falleth, H5307 H8432 whatsoever is in it shall be unclean; H2930 and ye shall break H7665 it.
34 Of all meat H400 which may be eaten, H398 that on which such water H4325 cometh H935 shall be unclean: H2930 and all drink H4945 that may be drunk H8354 in every such vessel H3627 shall be unclean. H2930
35 And every thing whereupon any part of their carcase H5038 falleth H5307 shall be unclean; H2930 whether it be oven, H8574 or ranges H3600 for pots, they shall be broken down: H5422 for they are unclean, H2931 and shall be unclean H2931 unto you.
36 Nevertheless a fountain H4599 or pit, H953 wherein there is plenty H4723 of water, H4325 shall be clean: H2889 but that which toucheth H5060 their carcase H5038 shall be unclean. H2930
37 And if any part of their carcase H5038 fall H5307 upon any sowing H2221 seed H2233 which is to be sown, H2232 it shall be clean. H2889
38 But if any water H4325 be put H5414 upon the seed, H2233 and any part of their carcase H5038 fall H5307 thereon, it shall be unclean H2931 unto you.
39 And if any beast, H929 of which ye may eat, H402 die; H4191 he that toucheth H5060 the carcase H5038 thereof shall be unclean H2930 until the even. H6153
40 And he that eateth H398 of the carcase H5038 of it shall wash H3526 his clothes, H899 and be unclean H2930 until the even: H6153 he also that beareth H5375 the carcase H5038 of it shall wash H3526 his clothes, H899 and be unclean H2930 until the even. H6153
41 And every creeping thing H8318 that creepeth H8317 upon the earth H776 shall be an abomination; H8263 it shall not be eaten. H398
42 Whatsoever goeth H1980 upon the belly, H1512 and whatsoever goeth H1980 upon all four, H702 or whatsoever hath more H7235 feet H7272 among all creeping things H8318 that creep H8317 upon the earth, H776 them ye shall not eat; H398 for they are an abomination. H8263
43 Ye shall not make H8262 yourselves H5315 abominable H8262 with any creeping thing H8318 that creepeth, H8317 neither shall ye make yourselves unclean H2933 with them, that ye should be defiled H2930 thereby.
44 For I am the LORD H3068 your God: H430 ye shall therefore sanctify yourselves, H6942 and ye shall be holy; H6918 for I am holy: H6918 neither shall ye defile H2930 yourselves H5315 with any manner of creeping thing H8318 that creepeth H7430 upon the earth. H776
45 For I am the LORD H3068 that bringeth H5927 you up out of the land H776 of Egypt, H4714 to be your God: H430 ye shall therefore be holy, H6918 for I am holy. H6918
46 This is the law H8451 of the beasts, H929 and of the fowl, H5775 and of every living H2416 creature H5315 that moveth H7430 in the waters, H4325 and of every creature H5315 that creepeth H8317 upon the earth: H776
47 To make a difference H914 between the unclean H2931 and the clean, H2889 and between the beast H2416 that may be eaten H398 and the beast H2416 that may not be eaten. H398
1 And Jehovah spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying unto them,
2 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the living things which ye may eat among all the beasts that are on the earth.
3 Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, `and' cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that may ye eat.
4 Nevertheless these shall ye not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that part the hoof: the camel, because he cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, he is unclean unto you.
5 And the coney, because he cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, he is unclean unto you.
6 And the hare, because she cheweth the cud but parteth not the hoof, she is unclean unto you.
7 And the swine, because he parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, but cheweth not the cud, he is unclean unto you.
8 Of their flesh ye shall not eat, and their carcasses ye shall not touch; they are unclean unto you.
9 These may ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, that may ye eat.
10 And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of all the living creatures that are in the waters, they are an abomination unto you,
11 and they shall be an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, and their carcasses ye shall have in abomination.
12 Whatsoever hath no fins nor scales in the waters, that is an abomination unto you.
13 And these ye shall have in abomination among the birds; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the gier-eagle, and the ospray,
14 and the kite, and the falcon after its kind,
15 every raven after its kind,
16 and the ostrich, and the night-hawk, and the seamew, and the hawk after its kind,
17 and the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl,
18 and the horned owl, and the pelican, and the vulture,
19 and the stork, the heron after its kind, and the hoopoe, and the bat.
20 All winged creeping things that go upon all fours are an abomination unto you.
21 Yet these may ye eat of all winged creeping things that go upon all fours, which have legs above their feet, wherewith to leap upon the earth.
22 Even these of them ye may eat: the locust after its kind, and the bald locust after its kind, and the cricket after its kind, and the grasshopper after its kind.
23 But all winged creeping things, which have four feet, are an abomination unto you.
24 And by these ye shall become unclean: whosoever toucheth the carcass of them shall be unclean until the even;
25 And whosoever beareth `aught' of the carcass of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even.
26 Every beast which parteth the hoof, and is not clovenfooted, nor cheweth the cud, is unclean unto you: every one that toucheth them shall be unclean.
27 And whatsoever goeth upon its paws, among all beasts that go on all fours, they are unclean unto you: whoso toucheth their carcass shall be unclean until the even.
28 And he that beareth the carcass of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: they are unclean unto you.
29 And these are they which are unclean unto you among the creeping things that creep upon the earth: the weasel, and the mouse, and the great lizard after its kind,
30 and the gecko, and the land-crocodile, and the lizard, and the sand-lizard, and the chameleon.
31 These are they which are unclean to you among all that creep: whosoever doth touch them, when they are dead, shall be unclean until the even.
32 And upon whatsoever any of them, when they are dead, doth fall, it shall be unclean; whether it be any vessel of wood, or raiment, or skin, or sack, whatsoever vessel it be, wherewith any work is done, it must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the even; then shall it be clean.
33 And every earthen vessel, whereinto any of them falleth, whatsoever is in it shall be unclean, and it ye shall break.
34 All food `therein' which may be eaten, that on which water cometh, shall be unclean; and all drink that may be drunk in every `such' vessel shall be unclean.
35 And every thing whereupon `any part' of their carcass falleth shall be unclean; whether oven, or range for pots, it shall be broken in pieces: they are unclean, and shall be unclean unto you.
36 Nevertheless a fountain or a pit wherein is a gathering of water shall be clean: but that which toucheth their carcass shall be unclean.
37 And if `aught' of their carcass fall upon any sowing seed which is to be sown, it is clean.
38 But if water be put upon the seed, and `aught' of their carcass fall thereon, it is unclean unto you.
39 And if any beast, of which ye may eat, die; he that toucheth the carcass thereof shall be unclean until the even.
40 And he that eateth of the carcass of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: he also that beareth the carcass of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even.
41 And every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth is an abomination; it shall not be eaten.
42 Whatsoever goeth upon the belly, and whatsoever goeth upon all fours, or whatsoever hath many feet, even all creeping things that creep upon the earth, them ye shall not eat; for they are an abomination.
43 Ye shall not make yourselves abominable with any creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean with them, that ye should be defiled thereby.
44 For I am Jehovah your God: sanctify yourselves therefore, and be ye holy; for I am holy: neither shall ye defile yourselves with any manner of creeping thing that moveth upon the earth.
45 For I am Jehovah that brought you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: ye shall therefore be holy, for I am holy.
46 This is the law of the beast, and of the bird, and of every living creature that moveth in the waters, and of every creature that creepeth upon the earth;
47 to make a distinction between the unclean and the clean, and between the living thing that may be eaten and the living thing that may not be eaten.
1 And Jehovah speaketh unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying unto them,
2 `Speak unto the sons of Israel, saying, This `is' the beast which ye do eat out of all the beasts which `are' on the earth:
3 any dividing a hoof, and cleaving the cleft of the hoofs, bringing up the cud, among the beasts, it ye do eat.
4 `Only, this ye do not eat -- of those bringing up the cud, and of those dividing the hoof -- the camel, though it is bringing up the cud, yet the hoof not dividing -- it `is' unclean to you;
5 and the rabbit, though it is bringing up the cud, yet the hoof it divideth not -- unclean it `is' to you;
6 and the hare, though it is bringing up the cud, yet the hoof hath not divided -- unclean it `is' to you;
7 and the sow, though it is dividing the hoof, and cleaving the cleft of the hoof, yet the cud it bringeth not up -- unclean it `is' to you.
8 `Of their flesh ye do not eat, and against their carcase ye do not come -- unclean they `are' to you.
9 `This ye do eat of all which `are' in the waters; any one that hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the brooks, them ye do eat;
10 and any one that hath not fins and scales in the seas, and in the brooks, of any teeming creature of the waters, and of any creature which liveth, which `is' in the waters -- an abomination they `are' to you;
11 yea, an abomination they are to you; of their flesh ye do not eat, and their carcase ye abominate.
12 `Any one that hath not fins and scales in the waters -- an abomination it `is' to you.
13 `And these ye do abominate of the fowl; they are not eaten, an abomination they `are': the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray,
14 and the vulture, and the kite after its kind,
15 every raven after its kind,
16 and the owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after its kind,
17 and the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl,
18 and the swan, and the pelican, and the gier eagle,
19 and the stork, the heron after its kind, and the lapwing, and the bat.
20 `Every teeming creature which is flying, which is going on four -- an abomination it `is' to you.
21 `Only -- this ye do eat of any teeming thing which is flying, which is going on four, which hath legs above its feet, to move with them on the earth;
22 these of them ye do eat: the locust after its kind, and the bald locust after its kind, and the beetle after its kind, and the grasshopper after its kind;
23 and every teeming thing which is flying, which hath four feet -- an abomination it `is' to you.
24 `And by these ye are made unclean, any one who is coming against their carcase is unclean till the evening;
25 and anyone who is lifting up `aught' of their carcase doth wash his garments, and hath been unclean till the evening: --
26 even every beast which is dividing the hoof, and is not cloven-footed, and the cud is not bringing up -- unclean they `are' to you; any one who is coming against them is unclean.
27 `And any one going on its paws, among all the beasts which are going on four -- unclean they `are' to you; any one who is coming against their carcase is unclean until the evening;
28 and he who is lifting up their carcase doth wash his garments, and hath been unclean until the evening -- unclean they `are' to you.
29 `And this `is' to you the unclean among the teeming things which are teeming on the earth: the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after its kind,
30 and the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, and the mole;
31 these `are' the unclean to you among all which are teeming; any one who is coming against them in their death is unclean till the evening.
32 `And anything on which any one of them falleth, in their death, is unclean, of any vessel of wood or garment or skin or sack, any vessel in which work is done is brought into water, and hath been unclean till the evening, then it hath been clean;
33 and any earthen vessel, into the midst of which `any' one of them falleth, all that `is' in its midst is unclean, and it ye do break.
34 `Of all the food which is eaten, that on which cometh `such' water, is unclean, and all drink which is drunk in any `such' vessel is unclean;
35 and anything on which `any' of their carcase falleth is unclean (oven or double pots), it is broken down, unclean they `are', yea, unclean they are to you.
36 `Only -- a fountain or pit, a collection of water, is clean, but that which is coming against their carcase is unclean;
37 and when `any' of their carcase falleth on any sown seed which is sown -- it `is' clean;
38 and when water is put on the seed, and `any' of its carcase hath fallen on it -- unclean it `is' to you.
39 `And when any of the beasts which are to you for food dieth, he who is coming against its carcase is unclean till the evening;
40 and he who is eating of its carcase doth wash his garments, and hath been unclean till the evening; and he who is lifting up its carcase doth wash his garments, and hath been unclean till the evening.
41 `And every teeming thing which is teeming on the earth is an abomination, it is not eaten;
42 any thing going on the belly, and any going on four, unto every multiplier of feet, to every teeming thing which is teeming on the earth -- ye do not eat them, for they `are' an abomination;
43 ye do not make yourselves abominable with any teeming thing which is teeming, nor do ye make yourselves unclean with them, so that ye have been unclean thereby.
44 `For I `am' Jehovah your God, and ye have sanctified yourselves, and ye have been holy, for I `am' holy; and ye do not defile your persons with any teeming thing which is creeping on the earth;
45 for I `am' Jehovah who am bringing you up out of the land of Egypt to become your God; and ye have been holy, for I `am' holy.
46 `This `is' a law of the beasts, and of the fowl, and of every living creature which is moving in the waters, and of every creature which is teeming on the earth,
47 to make separation between the unclean and the pure, and between the beast that is eaten, and the beast that is not eaten.'
1 And Jehovah spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying to them,
2 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, These are the animals which ye shall eat of all the beasts which are on the earth.
3 Whatever hath cloven hoofs, and feet quite split open, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts -- that shall ye eat.
4 Only these shall ye not eat of those that chew the cud, or of those with cloven hoofs: the camel, for it cheweth the cud, but hath not cloven hoofs -- it shall be unclean unto you;
5 and the rock-badger, for it cheweth the cud, but hath not cloven hoofs -- it shall be unclean unto you;
6 and the hare, for it cheweth the cud, but hath not cloven hoofs -- it shall be unclean unto you;
7 and the swine, for it hath cloven hoofs, and feet quite split open, but it cheweth not the cud -- it shall be unclean unto you.
8 Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcase shall ye not touch: they shall be unclean unto you.
9 These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatever hath fins and scales in waters, in seas and in rivers, these shall ye eat;
10 but all that have not fins and scales in seas and in rivers, of all that swarm in the waters, and of every living soul which is in the waters -- they shall be an abomination unto you.
11 They shall be even an abomination unto you: of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their carcase ye shall have in abomination.
12 Whatever in the waters hath no fins and scales, that shall be an abomination unto you.
13 And these shall ye have in abomination of the fowls; they shall not be eaten; an abomination shall they be: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the sea-eagle,
14 and the falcon, and the kite, after its kind;
15 every raven after its kind;
16 and the female ostrich and the male ostrich, and the sea-gull, and the hawk, after its kind;
17 and the owl, and the gannet, and the ibis,
18 and the swan, and the pelican, and the carrion vulture,
19 and the stork; the heron after its kind, and the hoopoe, and the bat.
20 Every winged crawling thing that goeth upon all four shall be an abomination unto you.
21 Yet these shall ye eat of every winged crawling thing that goeth upon all four: those which have legs above their feet with which to leap upon the earth.
22 These shall ye eat of them: the arbeh after its kind, and the solam after its kind, and the hargol after its kind, and the hargab after its kind.
23 But every winged crawling thing that hath four feet shall be an abomination unto you.
24 And by these ye shall make yourselves unclean; whoever toucheth their carcase shall be unclean until the even.
25 And whoever carrieth [ought] of their carcase shall wash his garments, and be unclean until the even.
26 Every beast that hath cloven hoofs, but not feet quite split open, nor cheweth the cud, shall be unclean unto you: every one that toucheth them shall be unclean.
27 And whatever goeth on its paws, among all manner of beasts that go upon all four, those are unclean unto you: whoever toucheth their carcase shall be unclean until the even.
28 And he that carrieth their carcase shall wash his garments, and be unclean until the even: they shall be unclean unto you.
29 And these shall be unclean unto you among the crawling things which crawl on the earth: the mole, and the field-mouse, and the lizard, after its kind;
30 and the groaning lizard, and the great red lizard, and the climbing lizard, and the chomet, and the chameleon.
31 These shall be unclean unto you among all that crawl: whoever toucheth them when they are dead, shall be unclean until the even.
32 And on whatever any of them when they are dead doth fall, it shall be unclean; all vessels of wood, or garment, or skin, or sack, every vessel wherewith work is done -- it shall be put into water, and be unclean until the even; then shall it be clean.
33 And every earthen vessel into which [any] of them falleth -- whatever is in it shall be unclean; and ye shall break it.
34 All food that is eaten on which [such] water hath come shall be unclean; and all drink that is drunk shall be unclean, in every [such] vessel.
35 And everything where upon [any part] of their carcase falleth shall be unclean; oven and hearth shall be broken down: they are unclean, and shall be unclean unto you.
36 Nevertheless, a spring or a well, a quantity of water, shall be clean. But he that toucheth their carcase shall be unclean.
37 And if any part of their carcase fall upon any sowing-seed which is to be sown, it shall be clean;
38 but if water have been put on the seed, and any part of their carcase fall thereon, it shall be unclean unto you.
39 And if any beast which is to you for food die, he that toucheth the carcase thereof shall be unclean until the even.
40 And he that eateth of its carcase shall wash his garments, and be unclean until the even: he also that carrieth its carcase shall wash his garments, and be unclean until the even.
41 And every crawling thing which crawleth on the earth shall be an abomination; it shall not be eaten.
42 Whatever goeth on the belly, and whatever goeth on all four, and all that have a great many feet, of every manner of crawling thing which crawleth on the earth -- these ye shall not eat; for they are an abomination.
43 Ye shall not make yourselves abominable through any crawling thing which crawleth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean with them, that ye should be defiled thereby.
44 For I am Jehovah your God; and ye shall hallow yourselves, and ye shall be holy; for I am holy; and ye shall not make yourselves unclean through any manner of crawling thing which creepeth on the earth.
45 For I am Jehovah who brought you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: ye shall therefore be holy, for I am holy.
46 This is the law of cattle, and of fowl, and of every living soul that moveth in the waters, and of every soul that crawleth on the earth;
47 to make a difference between the unclean and the clean, and between the beast that is to be eaten and the beast that is not to be eaten.
1 Yahweh spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying to them,
2 "Speak to the children of Israel, saying, 'These are the living things which you may eat among all the animals that are on the earth.
3 Whatever parts the hoof, and is cloven-footed, and chews the cud among the animals, that you may eat.
4 "'Nevertheless these you shall not eat of those that chew the cud, or of those who part the hoof: the camel, because he chews the cud but doesn't have a parted hoof, he is unclean to you.
5 The coney, because he chews the cud but doesn't have a parted hoof, he is unclean to you.
6 The hare, because she chews the cud but doesn't part the hoof, she is unclean to you.
7 The pig, because he has a split hoof, and is cloven-footed, but doesn't chew the cud, he is unclean to you.
8 Of their flesh you shall not eat, and their carcasses you shall not touch; they are unclean to you.
9 These you may eat of all that are in the waters: whatever has fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, that you may eat.
10 All that don't have fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of all the living creatures that are in the waters, they are an abomination to you,
11 and you detest them. You shall not eat of their flesh, and you shall detest their carcasses.
12 Whatever has no fins nor scales in the waters, that is an abomination to you.
13 "'These you shall detest among the birds; they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination: the eagle, and the vulture, and the black vulture,
14 and the red kite, any kind of black kite,
15 any kind of raven,
16 the horned owl, the screech owl, and the gull, any kind of hawk,
17 the little owl, the cormorant, the great owl,
18 the white owl, the desert owl, the osprey,
19 the stork, any kind of heron, the hoopoe, and the bat.
20 "'All flying insects that walk on all fours are an abomination to you.
21 Yet you may eat these: of all winged creeping things that go on all fours, which have legs above their feet, with which to hop on the earth.
22 Even of these you may eat: any kind of locust, any kind of katydid, any kind of cricket, and any kind of grasshopper.
23 But all winged creeping things which have four feet, are an abomination to you.
24 "'By these you will become unclean: whoever touches the carcass of them shall be unclean until the evening.
25 Whoever carries any part of their carcass shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the evening.
26 "'Every animal which parts the hoof, and is not cloven-footed, nor chews the cud, is unclean to you. Everyone who touches them shall be unclean.
27 Whatever goes on its paws, among all animals that go on all fours, they are unclean to you. Whoever touches their carcass shall be unclean until the evening.
28 He who carries their carcass shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the evening. They are unclean to you.
29 "'These are they which are unclean to you among the creeping things that creep on the earth: the weasel, the rat, any kind of great lizard,
30 the gecko, and the monitor lizard, the wall lizard, the skink, and the chameleon.
31 These are they which are unclean to you among all that creep. Whoever touches them when they are dead, shall be unclean until the evening.
32 On whatever any of them falls when they are dead, it shall be unclean; whether it is any vessel of wood, or clothing, or skin, or sack, whatever vessel it is, with which any work is done, it must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the evening; then it will be clean.
33 Every earthen vessel, into which any of them falls, all that is in it shall be unclean, and you shall break it.
34 All food which may be eaten, that on which water comes, shall be unclean; and all drink that may be drunk in every such vessel shall be unclean.
35 Everything whereupon part of their carcass falls shall be unclean; whether oven, or range for pots, it shall be broken in pieces: they are unclean, and shall be unclean to you.
36 Nevertheless a spring or a cistern in which water is a gathered shall be clean: but that which touches their carcass shall be unclean.
37 If part of their carcass falls on any sowing seed which is to be sown, it is clean.
38 But if water is put on the seed, and part of their carcass falls on it, it is unclean to you.
39 "'If any animal, of which you may eat, dies; he who touches its carcass shall be unclean until the evening.
40 He who eats of its carcass shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the evening. He also who carries its carcass shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the evening.
41 "'Every creeping thing that creeps on the earth is an abomination. It shall not be eaten.
42 Whatever goes on its belly, and whatever goes on all fours, or whatever has many feet, even all creeping things that creep on the earth, them you shall not eat; for they are an abomination.
43 You shall not make yourselves abominable with any creeping thing that creeps, neither shall you make yourselves unclean with them, that you should be defiled thereby.
44 For I am Yahweh your God. Sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy; for I am holy: neither shall you defile yourselves with any kind of creeping thing that moves on the earth.
45 For I am Yahweh who brought you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your God. You shall therefore be holy, for I am holy.
46 "'This is the law of the animal, and of the bird, and of every living creature that moves in the waters, and of every creature that creeps on the earth,
47 to make a distinction between the unclean and the clean, and between the living thing that may be eaten and the living thing that may not be eaten.'"
1 And the Lord said to Moses and Aaron,
2 Say to the children of Israel: These are the living things which you may have for food among all the beasts on the earth.
3 You may have as food any beast which has a division in the horn of its foot, and whose food comes back into its mouth to be crushed again.
4 But, at the same time, of those beasts, you may not take for food the camel, because its food comes back but the horn of its foot is not parted in two; it is unclean to you.
5 And the rock-badger, for the same reason, is unclean to you.
6 And the hare, because the horn of its foot is not parted in two, is unclean to you.
7 And the pig is unclean to you, because though the horn of its foot is parted, its food does not come back.
8 Their flesh may not be used for food, and their dead bodies may not even be touched; they are unclean to you.
9 These you may have for food of all things living in the water: anything living in the water, in the seas or rivers, which has special parts for swimming and skin formed of thin plates, may be used for food.
10 All other things living and moving in the water, in the sea or in the rivers, are a disgusting thing to you;
11 They may not be used for food, and their dead bodies are disgusting to you.
12 Anything in the water which has no special parts for swimming and no thin plates on its skin is disgusting to you.
13 And among birds these are to be disgusting to you, and not to be used for food: the eagle and the gier-eagle and the ospray;
14 And the kite and the falcon, and birds of that sort;
15 Every raven, and birds of that sort;
16 And the ostrich and the night-hawk and the sea-hawk, and birds of that sort;
17 And the little owl and the cormorant and the great owl;
18 And the water-hen and the pelican and the vulture;
19 The stork and the heron, and birds of that sort, and the hoopoe and the bat.
20 Every winged four-footed thing which goes on the earth is disgusting to you;
21 But of the winged four-footed things, those which have long legs for jumping on the earth you may have for food;
22 Such as all the different sorts of locust.
23 But all other winged four-footed things which go on the earth are disgusting to you.
24 By these you will be made unclean; anyone touching their dead bodies will be unclean till evening:
25 Whoever takes away the dead body of one of them is to have his clothing washed, and will be unclean till evening.
26 Every beast, in the horn of whose foot there is not a complete division, and whose food does not come back, is unclean to you: anyone touching one of these will be unclean.
27 Any four-footed beast which goes on the ball of its foot, is unclean to you: anyone touching the dead body of one of these will be unclean till evening.
28 Anyone who takes away the dead body of one of these is to have his clothing washed and be unclean till evening.
29 And these are unclean to you among things which go low down on the earth; the weasel and the mouse and the great lizard, and animals of that sort;
30 And the ferret and the land crocodile and the lizard and the sand-lizard and the chameleon.
31 All these are unclean to you: anyone touching them when they are dead will be unclean till evening.
32 The dead body of any of these, falling on anything, will make that thing unclean; if it is any vessel of wood, or clothing, or skin, or bag, whatever it is, if it is used for any purpose, it will have to be put into water, and will be unclean till evening; after that it will be clean.
33 And if one of them gets into any vessel of earth, whatever is in the vessel will be unclean and the vessel will have to be broken.
34 Any food in it, and anything on which water from it comes, will be unclean: any drink taken from such a vessel will be unclean.
35 Any part of the dead body of one of these, falling on anything, will make it unclean; if it is an oven or a cooking-pot it will have to be broken: they are unclean and will be unclean to you.
36 But at the same time a fountain or a place where water is stored for use will be clean; but anyone touching their dead bodies will be unclean.
37 If any part of the dead body of one of these gets on to any seed for planting, it is clean;
38 But if water is put on the seed, and any part of the dead body gets on to it, it will be unclean to you.
39 And if any beast which may be used for food comes to a natural death, anyone touching its dead body will be unclean till evening.
40 And he who makes use of any part of its body for food is to have his clothing washed and be unclean till evening; and anyone taking away its body is to have his clothing washed and be unclean till evening.
41 Everything which goes flat on its body on the earth is disgusting, and is not to be used for food.
42 Whatever goes on its stomach or on four feet or has a great number of feet, even all those going flat on the earth, may not be used for food, for they are disgusting.
43 You are not to make yourselves disgusting with anything which goes about flat on the earth; you may not make yourselves unclean with them, in such a way that you are not holy to me.
44 For I am the Lord your God: for this reason, make and keep yourselves holy, for I am holy; you are not to make yourselves unclean with any sort of thing which goes about flat on the earth.
45 For I am the Lord, who took you out of the land of Egypt, to be your God; so be you holy, for I am holy.
46 This is the law about beasts and birds and every living thing moving in the waters, and every living thing which goes flat on the earth:
47 Marking out the unclean from the clean, and the living thing which may be used for food from that which may not.
Worthy.Bible » Commentaries » Keil & Delitzsch Commentary » Commentary on Leviticus 11
Commentary on Leviticus 11 Keil & Delitzsch Commentary
Laws Relating to Clean and Unclean Animals - Leviticus 11
The regulation of the sacrifices and institution of the priesthood, by which Jehovah opened up to His people the way of access to His grace and the way to sanctification of life in fellowship with Him, were followed by instructions concerning the various things which hindered and disturbed this living fellowship with God the Holy One, as being manifestations and results of sin, and by certain rules for avoiding and removing these obstructions. For example, although sin has its origin and proper seat in the soul, it pervades the whole body as the organ of the soul, and shatters the life of the body, even to its complete dissolution in death and decomposition; whilst its effects have spread from man to the whole of the earthly creation, inasmuch as not only did man draw nature with him into the service of sin, in consequence of the dominion over it which was given him by God, but God Himself, according to a holy law of His wise and equitable government, made the irrational creature subject to “vanity” and “corruption” on account of the sin of man (Romans 8:20-21), so that not only did the field bring forth thorns and thistles, and the earth produce injurious and poisonous plants (see at Genesis 3:18), but the animal kingdom in many of its forms and creatures bears the image of sin and death, and is constantly reminding man of the evil fruit of his fall from God. It is in this penetration of sin into the material creation that we may find the explanation of the fact, that from the very earliest times men have neither used every kind of herb nor every kind of animal as food; but that, whilst they have, as it were, instinctively avoided certain plants as injurious to health or destructive to life, they have also had a horror naturalis , i.e., an inexplicable disgust, at many of the animals, and have avoided their flesh as unclean. A similar horror must have been produced upon man from the very first, before his heart was altogether hardened, by death as the wages of sin, or rather by the effects of death, viz., the decomposition of the body; and different diseases and states of the body, that were connected with symptoms of corruption and decomposition, may also have been regarded as rendering unclean. Hence in all the nations and all the religions of antiquity we find that contrast between clean and unclean, which was developed in a dualistic form, it is true, in many of the religious systems, but had its primary root in the corruption that had entered the world through sin. This contrast was limited in the Mosaic law to the animal food of the Israelites, to contact with dead animals and human corpses, and to certain bodily conditions and diseases that are associated with the decomposition, pointing out most minutely the unclean objects and various defilements within these spheres, and prescribing the means for avoiding or removing them.
The instructions in the chapter before us, concerning the clean and unclean animals, are introduced in the first place as laws of food (Leviticus 11:2); but they pass beyond these bounds by prohibiting at the same time all contact with animal carrion (Leviticus 11:8, Leviticus 11:11, Leviticus 11:24.), and show thereby that they are connected in principle and object with the subsequent laws of purification (ch. 12-15), to which they are to be regarded as a preparatory introduction.
Leviticus 11:1
The laws which follow were given to Moses and Aaron (Leviticus 11:1; Leviticus 13:1; Leviticus 15:1), as Aaron had been sanctified through the anointing to expiate the sins and uncleannesses of the children of Israel.
Leviticus 11:2-3
(cf. Deuteronomy 14:4-8). Of the larger quadrupeds, which are divided in Genesis 1:24-25 into beasts of the earth (living wild) and tame cattle, only the cattle (behemah) are mentioned here, as denoting the larger land animals, some of which were reared by man as domesticated animals, and others used as food. Of these the Israelites might eat “ whatsoever parteth the hoof and is cloven-footed, and cheweth the cud among the cattle .” פּרסת שׁסע שׁסעת , literally “tearing (having) a rent in the hoofs,” according to Deuteronomy 14:5 into “two claws,” i.e., with a hoof completely severed in two. גּרה , rumination, μηρυκισμός (lxx), from גּרר (cf. יגּר Leviticus 11:7), to draw (Habakkuk 1:15), to draw to and fro; hence to bring up the food again, to ruminate. גּרה מעלת is connected with the preceding words with vav cop . to indicate the close connection of the two regulations, viz., that there was to be the perfectly cloven foot as well as the rumination (cf. Leviticus 11:4.). These marks are combined in the oxen, sheep, and goats, and also in the stag and gazelle. The latter are expressly mentioned in Deuteronomy 14:4-5, where - in addition to the common stag ( איּל ) and gazelle ( צבי , δορκάς , lxx), or dorcas-antelope , which is most frequently met with in Palestine, Syria, and Arabia, of the size of a roebuck, with a reddish brown back and white body, horns sixteen inches long, and fine dark eyes, and the flesh of which, according to Avicenna , is the best of all the wild game-the following five are also selected, viz.: (1) יחמוּר , not βούβαλος , the buffalo (lxx, and Luther ), but Damhirsch , a stag which is still much more common in Asia than in Europe and Palestine (see v. Schubert, R. iii. p. 118); (2) אקּו , probably, according to the Chaldee, Syriac , etc., the capricorn ( Steinbock ), which is very common in Palestine, not τραγέλαφος (lxx, Vulg.), the buck-stag ( Bockhirsch ), an animal lately discovered in Nubia (cf. Leyrer in Herzog's Cycl. vi. p. 143); (3) דּישׁן , according to the lxx and Vulg . πύραργος , a kind of antelope resembling the stag, which is met with in Africa (Herod. 4, 192), - according to the Chaldee and Syriac, the buffalo-antelope , - according to the Samar. and Arabic, the mountain-stag; (4) תּאו , according to the Chaldee the wild ox, which is also met with in Egypt and Arabia, probably the oryx (lxx, Vulg.), a species of antelope as large as a stag; and (5) זמר , according to the lxx and most of the ancient versions, the giraffe , but this is only found in the deserts of Africa, and would hardly be met with even in Egypt-it is more probably capreae sylvestris species , according to the Chaldee.
Leviticus 11:4-6
Any animal which was wanting in either of these marks was to be unclean, or not to be eaten. This is the case with the camel , whose flesh is eaten by the Arabs; it ruminates, but it has not cloven hoofs. Its foot is severed, it is true, but not thoroughly cloven, as there is a ball behind, upon which it treads. The hare and hyrax ( Klippdachs ) were also unclean, because, although they ruminate, they have not cloven hoofs. It is true that modern naturalists affirm that the two latter do not ruminate at all, as they have not the four stomachs that are common to ruminant animals; but they move the jaw sometimes in a manner which looks like ruminating, so that even Linnaeus affirmed that the hare chewed the cud, and Moses followed the popular opinion. According to Bochart , Oedmann , and others, the shaphan is the jerboa , and according to the Rabbins and Luther, the rabbit or coney. But the more correct view is, that it is the wabr of the Arabs, which is still called tsofun in Southern Arabia ( hyrax Syriacus ), an animal which feeds on plants, a native of the countries of the Lebanon and Jordan, also of Arabia and Africa. They live in the natural caves and clefts of the rocks (Psalms 104:18), are very gregarious, being often seen seated in troops before the openings to their caves, and extremely timid as they are quite defenceless (Proverbs 30:26). They are about the size of rabbits, of a brownish grey or brownish yellow colour, but white under the belly; they have bright eyes, round ears, and no tail. The Arabs eat them, but do not place them before their guests.
(Note: See Shaw , iii. p. 301; Seetzen, ii. p. 228; Robinson 's Biblical Researches , p. 387; and Roediger on Gesenius thesaurus , p. 1467.)
Leviticus 11:7
The swine has cloven hoofs, but does not ruminate; and many of the tribes of antiquity abstained from eating it, partly on account of its uncleanliness, and partly from fear of skin-diseases.
Leviticus 11:8
“ Of their flesh shall ye not eat (i.e., not slay these animals as food), and their carcase (animals that had died) shall ye not touch .” The latter applied to the clean or edible animals also, when they had died a natural death (Leviticus 11:39).
(cf. Deuteronomy 14:9 and Deuteronomy 14:10). Of water animals , everything in the water, in seas and brooks, that had fins and scales was edible. Everything else that swarmed in the water was to be an abomination, its flesh was not to be eaten, and its carrion was to be avoided with abhorrence. Consequently, not only were all water animals other than fishes, such as crabs, salamanders, etc., forbidden as unclean; but also fishes without scales, such as eels for example. Numa laid down this law for the Romans: ut pisces qui sqamosi non essent ni pollicerent (sacrificed): Plin. h. n. 32, c. 2, s. 10. In Egypt fishes without scales are still regarded as unwholesome ( Lane , Manners and Customs).
(cf. Deuteronomy 14:11-18). Of birds , twenty varieties are prohibited, including the bat , but without any common mark being given; though they consist almost exclusively of birds which live upon flesh or carrion, and are most of them natives of Western Asia.
(Note: The list is “hardly intended to be exhaustive, but simply mentions those which were eaten by others, and in relation to which, therefore, it was necessary that the Israelites should receive a special prohibition against eating them” ( Knobel ). Hence in Deuteronomy Moses added the ראה and enumerated twenty-one varieties; and on doubt, under other circumstances, he could have made the list still longer. In Deuteronomy 14:11 צפּור is used, as synonymous with עוף in Deuteronomy 14:20.)
The list commences with the eagle , as the king of the birds. Nesher embraces all the species of eagles proper. The idea that the eagle will not touch carrion is erroneous. According to the testimony of Arabian writers ( Damiri in Bochart , ii. p. 577), and several naturalists who have travelled (e.g., Forskal . l.c. p. 12, and Seetzen , 1, p. 379), they will eat carrion if it is still fresh and not decomposed; so that the eating of carrion could very properly be attributed to them in such passages as Job 39:30; Proverbs 30:17, and Matthew 24:28. But the bald-headedness mentioned in Micah 1:16 applies, not to the true eagle, but to the carrion-kite, which is reckoned, however, among the different species of eagles, as well as the bearded or golden vulture. The next in the list is peres , from paras = parash to break, ossifragus , i.e., wither the bearded or golden vulture, gypaetos barbatus , or more probably, as Schultz supposes, the sea-eagle , which may have been the species intended in the γρύψ = γρυπαίετος of the lxx and gryphus of the Vulgate, and to which the ancients seem sometimes to have applied the name ossifraga ( Lucret . v. 1079). By the next, עזניּה , we are very probably to understand the bearded or golden vulture . For this word is no doubt connected with the Arabic word for beard, and therefore points to the golden vulture, which has a tuft of hair or feathers on the lower beak, and which might very well be associated with the eagles so far as the size is concerned, having wings that measure 10 feet from tip to tip. As it really belongs to the family of cultures, it forms a very fitting link of transition to the other species of vulture and falcon (Leviticus 11:14). דּאה ( Deut . דּיּה , according to a change which is by no means rare when the aleph stands between two vowels: cf. דּואג in 1 Samuel 21:8; 1 Samuel 22:9, and דּויג in 1 Samuel 22:18, 1 Samuel 22:22), from דּאה to fly, is either the kite , or the glede , which is very common in Palestine ( v. Schubert, Reise iii. p. 120), and lives on carrion. It is a gregarious bird (cf. Isaiah 34:15), which other birds of prey are not, and is used by many different tribes as food ( Oedmann , iii. p. 120). The conjecture that the black glede-kite is meant, - a bird which is particularly common in the East, - and that the name is derived from דּאה to be dark, is overthrown by the use of the word למינהּ in Deuteronomy, which shows that דאה is intended to denote the whole genus. איּה , which is referred to in Job 28:7 as sharp-sighted, is either the falcon, several species of which are natives of Syria and Arabia, and which is noted for its keen sight and the rapidity of its flight, or according to the Vulgate , Schultz , etc., vultur , the true vulture (the lxx have Ἰκτίν , the kite, here, and γρύψ , the griffin, in Deut. and Job), of which there are three species in Palestine ( Lynch , p. 229). In Deuteronomy 14:13 הראה is also mentioned, from ראה to see. Judging from the name, it was a keen-sighted bird, either a falcon or another species of vulture ( Vulg . ixion ).
“ Every raven after his kind, ” i.e., the whole genus of ravens, with the rest of the raven-like birds, such as crows, jackdaws, and jays, which are all of them natives of Syria and Palestine. The omission of ו before את , which is found in several MSS and editions, is probably to be regarded as the true reading, as it is not wanting before any of the other names.
היּענה בּת , i.e., either daughter of screaming ( Bochart ), or daughter of greediness ( Gesenius , etc.), is used according to all the ancient versions for the ostrich, which is more frequently described as the dweller in the desert (Isaiah 13:21; Isaiah 34:13, etc.), or as the mournful screamer (Micah 1:8; Job 30:29), and is to be understood, not as denoting the female ostrich only, but as a noun of common gender denoting the ostrich generally. It does not devour carrion indeed, but it eats vegetable matter of the most various kinds, and swallows greedily stones, metals, and even glass. It is found in Arabia, and sometimes in Hauran and Belka ( Seetzen and Burckhardt ), and has been used as food not only by the Struthiophagi of Ethiopia ( Diod. Sic. 3, 27; Strabo , xvi. 772) and Numidia ( Leo Afric . p. 766), but by some of the Arabs also ( Seetzen , iii. p. 20; Burckhardt , p. 178), whilst others only eat the eggs, and make use of the fat in the preparation of food. תּחמס , according to Bochart, Gesenius, and others, is the male ostrich; but this is very improbable. According to the lxx, Vulg ., and others, it is the owl ( Oedmann , iii. pp. 45ff.); but this is mentioned later under another name. According to Saad. Ar. Erp. it is the swallow ; but this is called סיס in Jeremiah 8:7. Knobel supposes it to be the cuckoo , which is met with in Palestine ( Seetzen , 1, p. 78), and derives the name from חמס , violenter egit , supposing it to be so called from the violence with which it is said to turn out or devour the eggs and young of other birds, for the purpose of laying its own eggs in the nest ( Aristot. hist. an. 6, 7; 9, 29; Ael. nat. an. 6, 7). שׁחף is the λάρος , or slender gull , according to the lxx and Vulg . Knobel follows the Arabic, however, and supposes it to be a species of hawk , which is trained in Syria for hunting gazelles, hares, etc.; but this is certainly included in the genus נץ . נץ , from נצץ to fly, is the hawk , which soars very high, and spreads its wings towards the south (Job 39:26). It stands in fact, as למינהוּ shows, for the hawk-tribe generally, probably the ἱέραξ , accipiter , of which the ancients enumerate many different species. כּוס , which is mentioned in Psalms 102:7 as dwelling in ruins, is an owl according to the ancient versions, although they differ as to the kind. In Knobel's opinion it is either the screech-owl , which inhabits ruined buildings, walls, and clefts in the rock, and the flesh of which is said to be very agreeable, or the little screech-owl , which also lives in old buildings and walls, and raises a mournful cry at night, and the flesh of which is said to be savoury. שׁלך , according to the ancient versions an aquatic bird, and therefore more in place by the side of the heron, where it stands in Deuteronomy, is called by the lxx καταῤῥάκτης ; in the Targ . and Syr . נוּנא שׁלי , extrahens pisces . It is not the gull , however ( larus catarractes ), which plunges with violence, for according to Oken this is only seen in the northern seas, but a species of pelican , to be found on the banks of the Nile and in the islands of the Red Sea, which swims well, and also dives, frequently dropping perpendicularly upon fishes in the water. The flesh has an oily taste, but it is eaten for all that.
ינשׁוּף : from נשׁף to snort, according to Isaiah 34:11, dwelling in ruins, no doubt a species of owl ; according to the Chaldee and Syriac, the uhu , which dwells in old ruined towers and castles upon the mountains, and cries uhupuhu . תּנשׁמת , which occurs again in Leviticus 11:30 among the names of the lizards, is, according to Damiri , a bird resembling the uhu , but smaller. Jonathan calls it uthya = ὠτός , a night-owl . The primary meaning of the word נשׁם is essentially the same as that of נשׁף , to breathe or blow, so called because many of the owls have a mournful cry, and blow and snort in addition; though it cannot be decided whether the strix otus is intended, a bird by no means rare in Egypt, which utters a whistling blast, and rolls itself into a ball and then spreads itself out again, or the strix flammea , a native of Syria, which sometimes utters a mournful cry, and at other times snores like a sleeping man, and the flesh of which is said to be by no means unpleasant, or the hissing owl ( strix stridula ), which inhabits the ruins in Egypt and Syria, and is sometimes called massusu , at other times bane , a very voracious bird, which is said to fly in at open windows in the evening and kill children that are left unguarded, and which is very much dreaded in consequence. קאת , which also lived in desolate places (Isaiah 34:11; Zephaniah 2:14), or in the desert itself (Psalms 102:7), was not the katà , a species of partridge or heath-cock, which is found in Syria (Robinson, ii. p. 620), as this bird always flies in large flocks, and this is not in harmony with Isaiah 34:11 and Zephaniah 2:14, but the pelican ( πελεκάν , lxx), as all the ancient versions render it, which Ephraem (on Numbers 14:17) describes as a marsh-bird, very fond of its young, inhabiting desolate places, and uttering an incessant cry. It is the true pelican of the ancients ( pelecanus graculus ), the Hebrew name of which seems to have been derived from קוא to spit, from its habit of spitting out the fishes it has caught, and which is found in Palestine and the reedy marshes of Egypt (Robinson, Palestine). רחם , in Deut. רחמה , is κυκνός , the swan, according to the Septuagint; porphyrio , the fish-heron, according to the Vulgate; a marsh-bird therefore, possibly vultur percnopterus ( Saad. Ar. Erp. ), which is very common in Arabia, Palestine, and Syria, and was classed by the ancients among the different species of eagles ( Plin. h. n. 10, 3), but which is said to resemble the vulture, and was also called ὀρειπέλαργος , the mountain-stork ( Arist. h. an. 9, 32). It is a stinking and disgusting bird, of the raven kind, with black pinions; but with this exception it is quite white. It is also bald-headed, and feeds on carrion and filth. But it is eaten notwithstanding by many of the Arabs ( Burckhardt, Syr. p. 1046). It received its name of “ tenderly loving ” from the tenderness with which it watches over its young ( Bochart , iii. pp. 56, 57). In this respect it resembles the stork, חסידה , avis pia , a bird of passage according to Jeremiah 8:7, which builds its nest upon the cypresses (Psalms 104:17, cf. Bochart , iii. pp. 85ff.). In the East the stork builds its nest not only upon high towers and the roofs of houses, but according to Kazwini and others mentioned by Bochart (iii. p. 60), upon lofty trees as well.
(Note: Oedmann (v. 58ff.), Knobel , and others follow the Greek translation of Leviticus and the Psalms, and the Vulgate rendering of Leviticus, the Psalms, and Job, and suppose the reference to be to the ἐρωδιός , herodius , the heron: but the name chasidah points decidedly to the stork, which was generally regarded by the ancients as pietatis cultrix ( Petron . 55, 6), whereas, with the exception of the somewhat indefinite passage in Aelian ( Nat. an. 3, 23), καὶ τοὺς ἐρωδιοὺς ἀκούω ποιεῖν ταὐτόν (i.e., feed their young by spitting out their food) καὶ τοὺς πελεκᾶνας μέντοι , nothing is said about the parental affection of the heron. And the testimony of Bellonius , “ Ciconiae quae aetate in Europa sunt, magna hyemis parte ut in Aegypto sic etiam circa Antiochiam et juxta Amanum montem degunt ,” is a sufficient answer to Knobel's assertion, that according to Seetzen there are not storks in Mount Lebanon.)
אנפה , according to the lxx and Vulgate χαραδριός , a marsh-bird of the snipe kind, of which there are several species in Egypt ( Hasselquist , p. 308). This is quite in accordance with the expression “after her kind,” which points to a numerous genus. The omission of ואת before האנפה , whereas it is found before the name of every other animal, is very striking; but as the name is preceded by the copulative vav in Deuteronomy, and stands for a particular bird, it may be accounted for either from a want of precision on the part of the author, or from an error of the copyist like the omission of the ו before את in Leviticus 11:15.
(Note: On account of the omission of ואת Knobel would connect האנפה as an adjective with החסידה , and explain אנף as derived from ענף frons , ענף frondens , and signifying bushy. The herons were called “the bushy chasidah ,” he supposes, because they have a tuft of feathers at the back of their head, or long feathers hanging down from their neck, which are wanting in the other marsh-birds, such as the flamingo, crane, and ibis. But there is this important objection to the explanation, that the change of א for ע in such a word as ענף frons, which occurs as early as Leviticus 23:40, and has retained its ע even in the Aramaean dialects, is destitute of all probability. In addition to this, there is the improbability of the chasidah being restricted by anaphah to the different species of heron, with three of which the ancients were acquainted ( Aristot. h. an. 9, 2; Plin. h. n. 10, 60). If chasidah denoted the heron generally, or the white heron, the epithet anaphah would be superfluous. It would be necessary to assume, therefore, that chasidah denotes the whole tribe of marsh-birds, and that Moses simply intended to prohibit the heron or bushy marsh-bird. But either of these is very improbable: the former, because in every other passage of the Old Testament chasidah stands for one particular kind of bird; the latter, because Moses could hardly have excluded storks, ibises, and other marsh-birds that live on worms, from his prohibition. All that remains, therefore, is to separate ha - anaphah from the preceding word, as in Deuteronomy, and to understand it as denoting the plover (?) or heron, as there were several species of both. Which is intended, it is impossible to decide, as there is nothing certain to be gathered from either the ancient versions or the etymology. Bochart's reference of the word to a fierce bird, viz., a species of eagle, which the Arabs call Tammaj , is not raised into a probability by a comparison with the similarly sounding ἀνοπαῖα of Od. 1, 320, by which Aristarchus understands a kind of eagle.)
דּוּכיפת : according to the lxx, Vulg ., and others, the lapwing , which is found in Syria, Arabia, and still more commonly in Egypt ( Forsk, Russel, Sonnini ), and is eaten in some places, as its flesh is said to be fat and savoury in autumn ( Sonn . 1, 204). But it has a disagreeable smell, as it frequents marshy districts seeking worms and insects for food, and according to a common belief among the ancients, builds its nest of human dung. Lastly, העטלּף is the bat (Isaiah 2:20), which the Arabs also classified among the birds.
(cf. Deuteronomy 14:19). To the birds there are appended flying animals of other kinds: “ all swarms of fowl that go upon fours, ” i.e., the smaller winged animals with four feet, which are called sherez , “swarms,” on account of their multitude. These were not to be eaten, as they were all abominations, with the exception of those “ which have two shank-feet above their feet (i.e., springing feet) to leap with ” ( לא for לו as in Exodus 21:8). Locusts are the animals referred to, four varieties being mentioned with their different species (“ after his kind ”); but these cannot be identified with exactness, as there is still a dearth of information as to the natural history of the oriental locust. It is well known that locusts were eaten by many of the nations of antiquity both in Asia and Africa, and even the ancient Greeks thought the Cicades very agreeable in flavour ( Arist. h. an. 5, 30). In Arabia they are sold in the market, sometimes strung upon cords, sometimes by measure; and they are also dried, and kept in bags for winter use. For the most part, however, it is only by the poorer classes that they are eaten, and many of the tribes of Arabia abhor them (Robinson, ii. p. 628); and those who use them as food do not eat all the species indiscriminately. They are generally cooked over hot coals, or on a plate, or in an oven, or stewed in butter, and eaten either with salt or with spice and vinegar, the head, wings, and feet being thrown away. They are also boiled in salt and water, and eaten with salt or butter. Another process is to dry them thoroughly, and then grind them into meal and make cakes of them. The Israelites were allowed to eat the arbeh , i.e., according to Exodus 10:13, Exodus 10:19; Nahum 3:17, etc., the flying migratory locust, gryllus migratorius , which still bears this name, according to Niebuhr , in Maskat and Bagdad, and is poetically designated in Psalms 78:46; Psalms 105:34, as חסיל , the devourer , and ילק , the eater-up; but Knobel is mistaken in supposing that these names are applied to certain species of the arbeh . סלעם , according to the Chaldee, deglutivit , absorpsit , is unquestionably a larger and peculiarly voracious species of locust. This is all that can be inferred from the rashon of the Targums and Talmud, whilst the ἀττάκης and attacus of the lxx and Vulg. are altogether unexplained. חרגּל : according to the Arabic, a galloping, i.e., a hopping, not a flying species of locust. This is supported by the Samaritan, also by the lxx and Vulg ., ὀφιομάχης , ophiomachus . According to Hesychius and Suidas , it was a species of locust without wings, probably a very large kind; as it is stated in Mishnah , Shabb . vi. 10, that an egg of the chargol was sometimes suspended in the ear, as a remedy for earache. Among the different species of locusts in Mesopotamia, Niebuhr (Arab. p. 170) saw two of a very large size with springing feet, but without wings. חגב , a word of uncertain etymology, occurs in Numbers 13:33, where the spies are described as being like chagabim by the side of the inhabitants of the country, and in 2 Chronicles 7:13, where the chagab devours the land. From these passages we may infer that it was a species of locust without wings, small but very numerous, probably the ἀττέλαβος , which is often mentioned along with the ἀκρίς , but as a distinct species, locustarum minima sine pennis ( Plin. h. n. 29, c . 4, s . 29), or parva locusta modicis pennis reptans potius quam volitans semperque subsiliens ( Jerome (on Nahum 3:17).
(Note: In Deuteronomy 14:19 the edible kinds of locusts are passed over, because it was not the intention of Moses to repeat every particular of the earlier laws in these addresses. But when Knobel (on Lev. pp. 455 and 461) gives this explanation of the omission, that the eating of locusts is prohibited in Deuteronomy, and the Deuteronomist passes them over because in his more advanced age there was apparently no longer any necessity for the prohibition, this arbitrary interpretation is proved to be at variance with historical truth by the fact that locusts were eaten by John the Baptist, inasmuch as this proves at all events that a more advanced age had not given up the custom of eating locusts.)
In Leviticus 11:24-28 there follow still further and more precise instructions, concerning defilement through contact with the carcases (i.e., the carrion) of the animals already mentioned. These instructions relate first of all (Leviticus 11:24 and Leviticus 11:25) to aquatic and winged animals, which were not to be eaten because they were unclean (the expression “ for these ” in Leviticus 11:24 relates to them); and then (Leviticus 11:26-28) to quadrupeds, both cattle that have not the hoof thoroughly divided and do not ruminate (Leviticus 11:26), and animals that go upon their hands, i.e., upon paws, and have no hoofs, such as cats, dogs, bears, etc.
The same rule was applicable to all these animals: “ whoever toucheth the carcase of them shall be unclean until the even, ” i.e., for the rest of the day; he was then of course to wash himself. Whoever carried their carrion, viz., to take it away, was also unclean till the evening, and being still more deeply affected by the defilement, he was to wash his clothes as well.
To these there are attached analogous instructions concerning defilement through contact with the smaller creeping animals ( Sherez ), which formed the fourth class of the animal kingdom; though the prohibition against eating these animals is not introduced till Leviticus 11:41, Leviticus 11:42, as none of these were usually eaten. Sherez , the swarm, refers to animals which swarm together in great numbers (see at Genesis 1:21), and is synonymous with remes (cf. Genesis 7:14 and Genesis 7:21), “the creeping;” it denotes the smaller land animals which move without feet, or with feet that are hardly perceptible (see at Genesis 1:24). Eight of the creeping animals are named, as defiling not only the men with whom they might come in contact, but any domestic utensils and food upon which they might fall; they were generally found in houses, therefore, or in the abodes of men. חלד is not the mole (according to Saad. Ar. Abys. , etc.), although the Arabs still call this chuld , but the weasel (lxx, Onk ., etc.), which is common in Syria and Palestine, and is frequently mentioned by the Talmudists in the feminine form חוּלדה , as an animal which caught birds ( Mishn. Cholin iii. 4), which would run over the wave-loaves with a sherez in its mouth ( Mishn. Tohor . iv. 2), and which could drink water out of a vessel ( Mishn. Para ix. 3). עכבּר is the mouse (according to the ancient versions and the Talmud), and in 1 Samuel 6:5 the field-mouse , the scourge of the fields, not the jerboa, as Knobel supposes; for this animal lives in holes in the ground, is very shy, and does not frequent houses as is assumed to be the case with the animals mentioned here. צב is a kind of lizard, but whether the thav or dsabb , a harmless yellow lizard of 18 inches in length, which is described by Seetzen , iii. pp. 436ff., also by Hasselquist under the name of lacerta Aegyptia , or the waral , as Knobel supposes, a large land lizard reaching as much as four feet in length, which is also met with in Palestine (Robinson, ii. 160) and is called el worran by Seetzen , cannot be determined.
Leviticus 11:30
The early translators tell us nothing certain as to the three following names, and it is still undecided how they should be rendered. אנקה is translated μυγάλη by the lxx, i.e., shrew-mouse; but the oriental versions render it by various names for a lizard. Bochart supposes it to be a species of lizard with a sharp groaning voice, because אנק signifies to breathe deeply, or groan. Rosenmüller refers it to the lacerta Gecko , which is common in Egypt, and utters a peculiar cry resembling the croaking of frogs, especially in the night. Leyrer imagines it to denote the whole family of monitores ; and Knobel , the large and powerful river lizard, the water-waral of the Arabs, called lacerta Nilotica in Hasselquist , pp. 361ff., though he has failed to observe, that Moses could hardly have supposed it possible that an animal four feet long, resembling a crocodile, could drop down dead into either pots or dishes. כּוח is not the chameleon (lxx), for this is called tinshemeth , but the chardaun ( Arab .), a lizard which is found in old walls in Natolia, Syria, and Palestine, lacerta stellio , or lacerta coslordilos ( Hasselquist , pp. 351-2). Knobel supposes it to be the frog, because coach seems to point to the crying or croaking of frogs, to which the Arabs apply the term kuk , the Greeks κοάξ , the Romans coaxare . But this is very improbable, and the frog would be quite out of place in the midst of simple lizards. לטאה , according to the ancient versions, is also a lizard. Leyrer supposes it to be the nocturnal, salamander-like family of beckons ; Knobel , on the contrary, imagines it to be the tortoise, which creeps upon the earth ( terrae adhaeret ), because the Arabic verb signifies terrae adhaesit . This is very improbable, however. חמט (lxx), σαῦρα , Vulg . lacerta , probably the true lizard , or, as Leyrer conjectures, the anguis ( Luth. Blindschleiche , blind-worm), or zygnis , which forms the link between lizards and snakes. The rendering “snail” ( Sam. Rashi, etc.) is not so probable, as this is called שׁבלוּל in Psalms 58:9; although the purple snail and all the marine species are eaten in Egypt and Palestine. Lastly, תּנשׁמת , the self-inflating animal (see at Leviticus 11:18), is no doubt the chameleon , which frequently inflates its belly, for example, when enraged, and remains in this state for several hours, when it gradually empties itself and becomes quite thin again. Its flesh was either cooked, or dried and reduced to powder, and used as a specific for corpulence, or a cure for fevers, or as a general medicine for sick children ( Plin. h. n. 28, 29). The flesh of many of the lizards is also eaten by the Arabs ( Leyrer , pp. 603, 604).
Leviticus 11:31
The words, “ these are unclean to you among all swarming creatures, ” are neither to be understood as meaning, that the eight species mentioned were the only swarming animals that were unclean and not allowed to be eaten, nor that they possessed and communicated a larger amount of uncleanness; but when taken in connection with the instructions which follow, they can only mean, that such animals would even defile domestic utensils, clothes, etc., if they fell down dead upon them. Not that they were more unclean than others, since all the unclean animals would defile not only persons, but even the clothes of those who carried their dead bodies (Leviticus 11:25, Leviticus 11:28); but there was more fear in their case than in that of others, of their falling dead upon objects in common use, and therefore domestic utensils, clothes, and so forth, could be much more easily defiled by them than by the larger quadrupeds, by water animals, or by birds. “ When they be dead, ” lit., “ in their dying; ” i.e., not only if they were already dead, but if they died at the time when they fell upon any object.
Leviticus 11:32
In either case, anything upon which one of these animals fell became unclean, “ whether a vessel of wood, or raiment, or skin .” Every vessel ( כּלי in the widest sense, as in Exodus 22:6), “ wherein any work is done, ” i.e., that was an article of common use, was to be unclean till the evening, and then placed in water, that it might become clean again.
Leviticus 11:33
Every earthen vessel, into which (lit., into the midst of which) one of them fell, became unclean, together with the whole of its contents, and was to be broken, i.e., destroyed, because the uncleanness as absorbed by the vessel, and could not be entirely removed by washing (see at Leviticus 6:21). Of course the contents of such a vessel, supposing there were any, were not to be used.
Leviticus 11:34
“ Every edible food ( מן before כּל partitive, as in Leviticus 4:2) upon which water comes, ” - that is to say, which was prepared with water, - and “ every drink that is drunk...becomes unclean in every vessel, ” sc., if such an animal should fall dead upon the food, or into the drink. The traditional rendering of Leviticus 11:34 , “ every food upon which water out of such a vessel comes, ” is untenable; because מים without an article cannot mean such water, or this water.
Leviticus 11:35
Every vessel also became unclean, upon which the body of such an animal fell: such as תּנּוּר , the earthen baking-pot (see Leviticus 2:4), and כּירים , the covered pan or pot . כּיר , a boiling or roasting vessel (1 Samuel 2:14), can only signify, when used in the dual, a vessel consisting of two parts, i.e., a pan or pot with a lid .
Leviticus 11:36
Springs and wells were not defiled, because the uncleanness would be removed at once by the fresh supply of water. But whoever touched the body of the animal, to remove it, became unclean.
Leviticus 11:37-38
All seed-corn that was intended to be sown remained clean, namely, because the uncleanness attaching to it externally would be absorbed by the earth. But if water had been put upon the seed, i.e., if the grain had been softened by water, it was to be unclean, because in that case the uncleanness would penetrate the softened grains and defile the substance of the seed, which would therefore produce uncleanness in the fruit.
Lastly, contact with edible animals, if they had not been slaughtered, but had died a natural death, and had become carrion in consequence, is also said to defile (cf. Leviticus 11:39, Leviticus 11:40 with Leviticus 11:24-28). This was the case, too, with the eating of the swarming land animals, whether they went upon the belly,
(Note: The large ו in גּחון (Leviticus 11:42) shows that this vav is the middle letter of the Pentateuch.)
as snakes and worms, or upon four feet, as rats, mice, weasels, etc., or upon many feet, like the insects (Leviticus 11:41-43). Lastly (Leviticus 11:44, Leviticus 11:45), the whole law is enforced by an appeal to the calling of the Israelites, as a holy nation, to be holy as Jehovah their God, who had brought them out of Egypt to be a God to them, was holy (Exodus 6:7; Exodus 29:45-46).
Leviticus 11:46, Leviticus 11:47 contain the concluding formula to the whole of this law. If we take a survey, in closing, of the animals that are enumerated as unclean and not suitable for food, we shall find that among the larger land animals they were chiefly beasts of prey, that seize upon other living creatures and devour them in their blood; among the water animals, all snake-like fishes and slimy shell-fish; among birds, the birds of prey, which watch for the life of other animals and kill them, the marsh-birds, which live on worms, carrion, and all kinds of impurities, and such mongrel creatures as the ostrich, which lives in the desert, and the bat, which flies about in the dark; and lastly, all the smaller animals, with the exception of a few graminivorous locusts, but more especially the snake-like lizards, - partly because they called to mind the old serpent, partly because they crawled in the dust, seeking their food in mire and filth, and suggested the thought of corruption by the slimy nature of their bodies. They comprised, in fact, all such animals as exhibited more or less the darker type of sin, death, and corruption; and it was on this ethical ground alone, and not for all kinds of sanitary reasons, or even from political motives, that the nation of Israel, which was called to sanctification, was forbidden to eat them. It is true there are several animals mentioned as unclean, e.g., the ass, the camel, and others, in which we can no longer recognise this type. But we must bear in mind, that the distinction between clean animals and unclean goes back to the very earliest times (Genesis 7:2-3), and that in relation to the large land animals, as well as to the fishes, the Mosaic law followed the marks laid down by tradition, which took its rise in the primeval age, whose childlike mind, acute perception, and deep intuitive insight into nature generally, discerned more truly and essentially the real nature of the animal creation than we shall ever be able to do, with thoughts and perceptions disturbed as ours are by the influences of unnatural and ungodly culture.
(Note: “In its direct and deep insight into the entire nexus of the physical, psychical, and spiritual world, into the secret correspondences of the cosmos and nomos , this sense for nature anticipated discoveries which we shall never make with our ways of thinking, but which a purified humanity, when looking back from the new earth, will fully understand, and will no longer only 'see through a glass darkly.'” - Leyrer, Herzog's Cycl.)